Tropical Animal Science Journal

Front-matter

K. G. Wiryawan — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 08:57:48 +0700

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5398/tasj.2024.47.1.fm.i

Development, Quality, and Production Parameters of In Vitro Embryo in Anatolian Water Buffaloes

M. A. Yılmaz, M. Kaymaz, Y. Ergün — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 09:03:00 +0700

The aim of the study was to determine in vitro embryo development, embryo quality, and in vitro embryo production (IVEP) parameters by using Anatolian water buffaloes (AWB) oocytes. In this study, 184 ovaries of 92 AWB obtained from slaughterhouses were used. The tissue culture medium (TCM-199) was used for in vitro maturation (IVM), Brackett & Oliphant (BO) medium for in vitro fertilization (IVF), and Charles Rosencrans 1 amino acid (CR1aa) medium for in vitro culture (IVC). A total of 395 oocytes (2.15 per ovary) were obtained from the ovaries. Frozen AWB sperm was used for fertilization. The number of cleavages at the 24^th hour was 93 out of 302 (30.79%), the number of morulae and compact morula at the 96^th hour was 53 out of 302 (17.55%), the number of blastocysts at 7^th day was 29 out of 302 (9.60%), and the number of hatched blastocysts were 12 out of 302 (3.97%) on the 8^th and 9^th days. In the quality assessment of 29 blastocysts recovered on day 7 in IVC, 7 of them (24.13%) were of the code 1 quality, 9 of them (31.03%) were of the code 2 quality, 8 of them (27.50%) were of the code 3 quality, and 5 of them (17.24%) were classified as the code 4 quality. This study provides the first data on in vitro embryo development, embryo quality classification, and embryo production in AWB. As a result, the potential of oocytes AWB for IVEP has been revealed, and a scientific background has been provided for future studies.

Improving Rabbit Fertility: The Relationship Between Semen Dilution Rate and Artificial Insemination Effectiveness

T. T. T. Khuong, H. V. Len, T. T. Trung — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 09:03:55 +0700

This study aimed to assess the impact of different dilution ratios of rabbit semen to Tris Citrate Glucose (TCG) extender on doe fertility through artificial insemination in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam. The experiment included three dilution ratios (1:10, 1:15, and 1:20), with each treatment replicated 12 times. Semen quality variables were evaluated and does were artificially inseminated using a standardized technique. Our findings revealed that the 1:20 dilution exhibited the highest percentage of successful insemination (66.67%) and the shortest gestation period (31.6 days). Furthermore, the 1:20 dilution treatment resulted in an average litter size at birth of 5.25 kits, a litter weight at birth of 290.37 g, and a litter weight at weaning of 1963.04 g. These results suggest that the 1:20 dilution ratio holds promise for artificial insemination in rabbit breeding programs in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam.

Exploring the Impact of Kisspeptin-10 on the Fecundity Traits of Anestrus Iraqi Cows

S. S. Khafaji — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 09:04:52 +0700

The inactive ovaries of cattle caused a significant economic loss, so the current study is intended to recover and enhance the fertility of dairy cattle suffering from anestrus by kisspeptin-10. Forty Holstein Friesian cows, aged 3.5-6.8 years with inactive ovaries for 60-70 days of postpartum, were distributed randomly into four equal groups. The control (C) group administered 5 mL intramuscularly (I.M) of normal saline, Gn group administered 0.5 mg/animal I.M of GnRH. K1 and K2 were administered with 6 μg/kg BW I.M and 12 μg/kg BW I.M of kisspeptin-10, respectively. After heat signs were detected, artificial insemination was performed. Blood samples were collected at 0, 2, 6, 24, and 72 hours post-hormonal injection to estimate fertility hormones, and fecundity features were demonstrated after hormonal treatment and after twelve months. The current results noted a significant (p<0.05) increment in estradiol, FSH, and LH in K1 and K2 cows compared to Gn and C at 6-24 h post hormonal treatment, while progesterone showed a significant (p<0.05) drop in K1, Gn, and K2 in comparison with C. Also, the calving and fertility rates were significantly higher (p<0.05) in K2 and K1 compared with Gn and C after hormonal treatment and after one year. The kisspeptin-10 injection improved the fertility of anestrus cows by enhancing the reproductive hormonal profile and fertility traits for long-term effects and without requiring a second kisspeptin-10 injection in Holstein Friesian cows; therefore, administration of kisspeptin-10 can be regarded as an alternative application of using some hormones like GnRH.

Comparison of Growth Traits of Male Bali Cattle (Bos javanicus) with Different Adult Coat Colors

I. Suhendro, J. Jakaria, R. Priyanto, W. Manalu, S. Hartono, R. R. Noor — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:12:25 +0700

Bali cattle have a distinct coloration that indicates the sexual dimorphism of adult cattle. However, coat color deviations are found in bulls due to either genetic impurity or inbreeding. Furthermore, information is needed to determine whether there is a relationship between coat color and cattle performance. This study aimed to evaluate the potential association between coat color deviation and the growth traits of male Bali cattle. A total of 99 adult male Bali cattle from Livestock Breeding and Forage Centre (BPTU) Denpasar, Bali, were used in this study to assess the possible association between coat color and growth capacity. Animals were grouped according to color patterns into full black (FBL), faded black (FDB), black sorel (BSR), and sorel (SRL). Periodically, growth traits of body weight (BW), wither height (WH), body length (BL), and chest circumference (CC) were measured at birth, weaning, and 365 and 730 days of age. The repeated measurement Anova analysis was used to evaluate the relation between coat color and growth traits over time. This study showed no correlation for both traits in calves due to the absence of color deviation in age. However, it turned out to be a significantly positive correlation (p<0.05) when Bali cattle reached puberty at 365 and 730 days. The black adult bulls (FBL & FDB) were significantly larger in growth traits (p<0.05) than their brown (BSR and SRL) counterparts. The coat color of male adult Bali cattle was associated with their growth traits.

Nutrient Digestibility, N Balance, Performance, and Blood Parameters of Kacang Goats Differing in GDF9 Genotype Fed Different Sources of Dietary Fiber

A. Irawan, T. Hartatik , S. Bintara, A. Astuti, Kustantinah — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:15:22 +0700

This study aims to determine the impact of different GDF9 genotypes on feed intake, nutrient digestibility, and nitrogen balance in Kacang goats by examining various metabolic processes. Twenty-nine Kacang goats were genotyped using PCR-RFLP DNA at position g.3855A/C of the GDF9 gene in exon 2. A 2 × 2 factorial design with two factors, namely, diet type (diets 1 and 2) and genotype (homozygote AA and heterozygote AC), was adopted. Diet 1 group comprised 11 goats with the AA genotype and 4 goats with the AC genotype, and the diet 2 group consisted of 9 goats with the AA genotype and 5 goats with the AC genotype. Both diets had the same protein content (iso-protein) and consisted of free-choice Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum). Diet 1 had an additional 400 g of concentrate containing 11.25% crude protein (CP) and 55.86% total digestible nutrients (TDN). Diet 2 was a total mixed ration (TMR) containing 12.46% crude protein and 67.92% TDN. Results demonstrated a significant interaction (p<0.05) effect between diet and genotype on crude protein (CP) digestibility, neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility, fecal nitrogen (N feces), urinary nitrogen (N urine), nitrogen retention (%), and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). However, no significant interaction effect was observed on the consumption of dry matter (DM), CP, crude fiber (CF), nitrogen free extract (NFE), and NDF and the digestibility of DM, CF, and NFE. TMR resulted in a 9% higher consumption of NDF, higher nutrient digestibility, improved nitrogen balance, average daily gain (ADG), and elevated glucose levels compared with diet 1. Kacang goats with the AC genotype exhibited better CP digestibility and increased nitrogen intake than those with the AA genotype. In conclusion, the GDF9 genotype influences the nutrient digestibility in Kacang goats, and those with the AC genotype utilize feed nutrients more efficiently than those with the AA genotype. The AC genotype resulting from the GDF9 gene mutation at position g.3855A>C can be used for genomic marker selection of high-quality Kacang goats in nutrient digestibility.

Effect of Shearing on Thermo-Physiological, Behavior, and Productivity Traits of Two Indonesian Local Sheep Breeds

Panjono, A. Ibrahim, N. Ngadiyono, H. Maulana, B. A. Atmoko — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:16:33 +0700

Thin-tailed sheep (TTS) and Fat-tailed sheep (FTS) are local Indonesian sheep breeds characterized by coarse wool. This study aimed to investigate the effects of wool shearing on the thermo-physiological, behavior, and productivity traits of these sheep. Sixteen selected rams were utilized in this study. Animals were assigned to a factorial completely randomized design and divided into two groups (TTS and FTS) and two treatments (sheared and unsheared). The study spanned three months under controlled conditions. Variables observed included environmental conditions, thermo-physiological parameters (respiratory rate/RR, pulse rate/PR, rectal temperature/RT, and heat stress index/HSI), sheep behavior (feeding duration, drinking frequency, rumination duration, urination frequency, defecation frequency, standing duration, and lying duration), and sheep productivity (feed intake, average daily gain/ADG, and feed conversion ratio/FCR). Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA. Throughout the study, average temperature and humidity ranged from 25.13-30.48 oC and 64.50%-91.67%, respectively. Wool shearing significantly influenced (p<0.05) sheep’s thermo-physiological, behavior, and productivity traits. These effects were consistent across sheep breeds, with no significant differences noted. Wool shearing significantly reduced (p<0.05) RR, PR, and RT, while the impact on average HSI was not significant. Additionally, sheared sheep exhibited increased (p<0.05) feeding, rumination, standing duration, and higher defecation frequency. Conversely, drinking frequency, urination frequency, and lying duration decreased in the sheared sheep group. Moreover, the sheared sheep demonstrated higher (p<0.05) feed intake and ADG, leading to a reduced (p<0.05) FCR compared to the unsheared group. In conclusion, shearing is a recommended practice for coarse wool-type sheep in tropical environments. This technique does not induce stress and enhances their thermo-physiological, behavior, and productivity traits.

Impact of ß-Glucan with Non-Glucan Biomaterials on Growth Performance, Carcass Characteristics, and Viable Count of Lactobacilli in Broiler Chicks

Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:17:49 +0700

Probiotics, prebiotics, and immunomodulators like β-glucan have become popular feed additives. Thus, this study examined the effects of a β-glucan product fortified with dietary biomaterials (fats, proteins, and minerals) on broiler chicks’ growth, carcass features, immunological response, white blood cell (WBC) count, and viable count (number of living cells) of lactobacilli. Day-old Ross-308 (n=250) were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 dietary treatments; A= basal diet, B= basal diet + 40 mg/kg of avilamycin, C= basal diet + 250 g/ton β-glucan product, D= basal diet + 500 g/ton β-glucan product, and E= basal diet + 750 g/ton β-glucan product. The starter diet was administered from days 1 to 14, the grower diet from days 15 to 21, and the finisher diet from days 22 to 35. Each treatment had 5 repetitions of 10 birds. On days 7 and 20, all birds were eye-drop inoculated against the Newcastle disease (ND) vaccine. Three chickens from each replication of all treatments were slaughtered on day 35 to examine carcass features and collect ileal digesta. White blood cell and viable lactobacilli counts at the end of the trial showed the effect of β-glucan supplementation. Throughout the trial, β-glucan administration did not increase average daily weight gain. The treatments did not change WBC or viable count; however, lactobacilli count increased (p≤0.05) in treatment group E. Treatment E increased (p≤0.05) ND-vaccination antibody-titers but did not affect immunological organ development. Treatment diet E (base diet +750 mg/t β-glucan product) improved broiler immunity and gut microbiota. In conclusion, the addition of β-glucan to broiler feed enhanced the beneficial gut flora, particularly Lactobacilli and immune response, and may serve as an alternative to antibiotics.

The Use of Enzymatic Pre-digestion of Fermented Palm Kernel Cake in the Laying Hens Diet on Production Performance, Nutrient Digestibility, Egg Quality, and Egg Chemical Content

B. Sundu, A. Adjis, H. Hafsah, M. Pamulu — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:19:09 +0700

A study was conducted to determine the effect of enzymatic pre-digestion of fermented palm kernel cake in the laying hen’s diet on the performance production, nutrient digestibility, egg quality, and egg chemical content. Palm kernel cake (PKC) was added with 3% ammonium sulfate and then fermented by using Saccharomyces cerevisiae for 5 days (FPKC). The FPKC was hydrolyzed with mannanase to produce enzymatic pre-digestion of FPKC (EPFPKC). The study used a completely randomized design with 5 treatments and 6 replications. The EPFPKC-containing diets were fed to 240 Lohmann Brown laying hens aged 19 weeks old for 3 months. The diets were D-1 (without EPFPKC), D-2 (5% EPFPKC), D-3 (10% EPFPKC), D-4 (15% EPFPKC), and D-5 (20% EPFPKC). Feed and drinking water were available at all times. Total fecal discharges were collected for three consecutive days to measure feed digestibility. The variables measured were feed digestibility, production performance, egg quality, lauric acid, cholesterol, and beta-carotene content of eggs. Data were analyzed with the variance analysis. The results showed that fermentation could increase the protein content of PKC and decrease the crude fiber content. The addition of EPFPKC in the diets increased dry matter, protein, and crude fiber digestibility and improved the quality of albumen and yolk during 28 days of storage at room temperature. Adding EPFPKC also increased the concentration of lauric acid and beta-carotene in eggs. In conclusion, the addition of 15% of enzymatic pre-digestion of fermented palm kernel cake (D-4) in the diet improves the quality of eggs stored for 28 days, and increases the concentration of lauric acid and beta carotene in eggs.

Fatty Acid Biohydrogenation, Fermentation, and Digestibility of Ration Containing Napier and King Grass with Different Harvest Ages and Altitudes: In Vitro Study

D. Anzhany, T. Toharmat, Despal, A. Łozicki — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:20:17 +0700

Forage is the primary and cheapest source of fatty acids (FA), which includes conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), influencing milk FA. This study aimed to analyze the fermentation, digestibility, biohydrogenation, nutrient composition, and FA content of napier grass (NG) and king grass (KG). Grasses were collected from the Pangalengan (highland) and Dramaga (lowland) districts at three harvest ages (1, 1.5, and 2 months). The feed was then analyzed for nutrients and FA. An in vitro study was performed to analyze the concentrations of NH3, VFA, protozoa populations, and biohydrogenation. No significant differences were observed in protozoa, pH, total VFA, or FA biohydrogenation. NH3 ranged from 5.31 mM to 8.86 mM. Significant differences were found at different altitudes, with an interaction between grass type and harvest age and an interaction between the three factors. The highest NH3 concentration was found in rations containing highland NG at 1.5 months. The DMD value was 58.27%–64.39%, and OMD was 61.07%–67.18%. Different digestibility values were observed at different harvest ages, with an interaction between altitude and harvest age. This aligned with the CF, NDF, and lignin contents in grasses. The highest was at 1.5 months NG. Significant differences were observed in the relative proportions of propionic acids. The highest value was in the ration containing the 1.5-month highland NG. Rations containing KG yielded significantly higher amounts of the C18:0 and C18:1 trans. In conclusion, the 1.5-month highland NG is a potential ration for supporting healthier FA production in milk.

Improving Feed Intake, Digestibility, Rumen Fermentation, and Blood Profiles in Kacang Goats through Pueraria phaseoloides Supplementation in Kume Grass Hay Diets

Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:21:38 +0700

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of supplementing Pueraria phaseoloides on feed intake, nutrient digestibility, rumen fermentation, and blood profiles in male Kacang goats fed Kume grass hay as a basal diet. Twelve male Kacang goats aged between 6 and 8 months with a mean body weight of 13.63 ± 1.40 kg were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments (three goats per treatment) in a 3x4 incomplete Latin square design. The treatments consist of a control group (P0) receiving grass hay and concentrate and three groups supplemented with 10% (P10), 20% (P20), and 30% (P30) P. phaseoloides of protein requirement on a dry matter basis. The data obtained in this study were statistically analyzed using the GLM procedure following ANOVA in SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 22. The results indicated that P. phaseoloides significantly (p<0.05) increased feed intake, with goats receiving P. phaseoloides consuming more dry matter compared to the control group (P0). Furthermore, nutrient digestibility improved (p<0.05) with P. phaseoloides supplementation. However, rumen fermentation characteristics, including NH3-N concentration, VFA concentration, and ruminal pH, did not differ significantly among the dietary treatments. Additionally, there were no significant differences in blood profiles among the Kacang goats under different dietary treatments. In conclusion, supplementation of P. phaseoloides in male Kacang goats fed Kume grass hay as a basal diet improved feed intake and nutrient digestibility but had no significant effect on rumen fermentation or blood profiles. Therefore, P. phaseoloides can be used as a feed supplement for ruminants consuming low-quality grass.

Productivity, Carcass Traits, and Meat Quality of Local Lambs Fed with Carica pubescens Seeds Meal

Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:22:36 +0700

This study aimed to determine the effect of substituting agricultural by-products of Carica pubescens seeds meal with some concentrates on productivity, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of local lambs. Eighteen male thin-tailed lambs with an average initial body weight of 10.68 ± 1.3 kg (3-4 months old) were treated with a completely randomized design for ten weeks. The feed ingredients were C. pubescens, Pakchong grass (PG), and concentrate (K). Feed ingredients were prepared into complete feed with a balance of forage and concentrate 40:60% with three treatments, namely: T1= 40% PG + 55% K + 5% C. pubescens; T2= 40% PG + 47.5% K + 12.5% C. pubescens; and T3= 40% RG + 40% K + 20% C. pubescens. The use of 20% C. pubescens-treated lambs was statistically different (p<0.05) regarding the increasing BWG (115.60 g/day), CPI (104.96 g/day), FCR (6.40), slaughter weight (19.62 kg), carcass weight (7.83 kg), meat weight (4.49 kg), and fat weight (1.66 kg). The treatment with 12.5% C. pubescens resulted in significantly different increasing tenderness (p<0.05) in longissimus dorsi and biceps femoris muscle pain (2.79 kgf/cm²) and (3.36 kgf/cm²), respectively. The inclusion level of C. pubescens seeds up 20% resulted in higher body weight gain, crude protein intake, feed cost ratio, slaughter weight, carcass weight, and meat weight.

Improving the Rumen Molar Proportion of Glucogenic Volatile Fatty Acids with the Inclusion of Siam Weed (Chromolaena odorata) Meal in Pelleted Diet of Fattened Cattle

M. L. Mullik, T. O. D. Dato, Y. M. Mulik, G. Oematan — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:23:32 +0700

The objective of this metabolism study was to evaluate the efficacy of Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) meal in pelleted diets for fattened cattle. Four 2-year-old Bali steers were assigned to four dietary treatments using a 4x4 Latin square experimental design. The treatments were pellets containing chromolaena meal at 10% (10COM), 20% (20COM), 30% (30COM), or 40% (40COM). The pellet was given at 2% liveweight (LW), and kume (Sorghum plumosum var. Timorense) grass hay was offered ad libitum. The diets were isonitrogenous (20%) and energy (11.5 MJ ME/kg DM). Dietary intake, digestibility, and rumen fermentation were the variables measured. The results showed that increasing chromolaena meal to 40% substantially decreased the nutrient intake. Dry matter intake decreased from 2.5% LW in the 10COM to 2.19% LW in the 40COM. Likewise, crude protein intake decreased from 749 g/d (10COM) to 661 g/d (40COM). On the contrary, digestibility, rumen pH, ammonia concentration (116–125 mg/dL), and volatile fatty acids were not affected. It might be concluded that chromolaena can be used as a protein source for ruminants, but at high levels of inclusion (40%) tends to reduce intake.

Utilization of Dietary Maggot Frass on the Performance, Carcass Percentage, Digestive Organs, and Economic Value of Muscovy Ducks

C. S. Utama, R. I. Cahya, B. Sulistiyanto — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:24:32 +0700

This study aimed to examine the effect of using maggot frass level inclusion in the diet on the performance, digestive organs, immune organs, and economic value of Muscovy Ducks. The study employed a completely randomized design with four treatments and five replications. The treatments used were: T0= 100% basal feed, T1= 80% basal feed + 20% maggot frass, T2= 60% basal feed + 40% maggot frass, and T3= 40% basal feed + 60% maggot frass. This study involved 300 Muscovy ducks aged 4 days, weighing 40.52 ± 4.81 gram/bird, and spanning a rearing period of 8 weeks. The obtained data was subjected to analysis of variance, followed by Duncan’s test (p<0.05) for significance. The results showed that the increase in body weight, final weight, IOFDC, N retention, and carcass percentage decreased along with increasing maggot frass content. There was an increase in feed consumption, AME, TME, and crude fiber digestibility when giving maggot frass. There is a tendency for performance to decrease as the percentage of maggot frass in duck feed increases, but maggot frass can still be used at a percentage of 40%. Based on the study’s findings, the use of maggot frass up to 40% can reduce feed operational costs and positively affect the IOFDC value.

The Silage Quality of Pennisetum purpureum Cultivar Gamma Umami Mixed with Calliandra calothyrsus and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum

I. K. Mudhita, R. A. Putra, M. M. Rahman, B. P. Widyobroto, Agussalim, N. Umami — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:25:25 +0700

This study aimed to determine the effect of Calliandra calothyrsus supplementation and inoculation of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) on Penisetum purpureum cv. Gamma Umami grass fermentative and chemical quality and nutrient degradability. The study used a completely randomized design with 3 × 3 factorial patterns. The first factor was Calliandra supplementation levels at 10%, 20%, and 30%; the second was L. plantarum inoculation levels at 0%, 2%, and 4%. The variables measured included chemical fermentation profiles, chemical composition, and rumen fermentation and degradability parameters. The result showed that a higher level of C. calothyrsus supplementation concomitant increased silage pH and NH₃-N concentration (p<0.05), while L. plantarum inoculation significantly decreased the silage pH and ammonia concentration (p<0.05). The silage contents of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, and ether extract in silage significantly (p<0.05) increased. Inoculation of L. plantarum decreased (p<0.05) crude fiber, ether extract, and total tannin content of silage. The total volatile fatty acids, acetate, propionate concentrations, and rumen microbial protein synthesis were significantly increased with Calliandra supplementation (p<0.05). L. plantarum inoculation treatment only increased the proportion of acetate (p<0.05) and tended to increase the volatile fatty acids of rumen fluid, the proportion of acetate, propionate, and butyrate. The rumen ammonia concentration decreased with Calliandra supplementation and L. plantarum inoculation. It is concluded that 30% Calliandra supplementation and 2% L. plantarum inoculation and their combination were the treatments that produced the best chemical fermentation, rumen fermentation, and degradability parameters.

Correlation of Meat pH and Muscle Fiber Characteristics, Cortisol Level, and Tenascin C Gene Expression in Pigs

A. Kayan, N. Koomkrong, W. Laenoi, J. Rattanasrisomporn — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 10:26:17 +0700

The effects of meat pH on muscle fiber characteristics, cortisol level, and Tenascin C (TNC) gene expression were examined. The muscle samples (n=100) were randomly collected from the Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) to determine meat pH at 24 hours (meat pH24h) post-mortem. Muscle samples (five samples per group) with divergent meat pH levels (low versus high) were selected to study muscle fiber characteristics and mRNA expression based on quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Blood samples (five samples per group) of the two meat pH levels were taken for serum cortisol analysis. The results showed that there was no significant differences between the groups for the muscle fiber characteristics of total number of fibers, muscle fiber diameter, cross-section area, perimysium thickness, and endomysium thickness. Different meat pH24h values did not affect the cortisol level. The mRNA expression of the TNC gene was significantly (p<0.05) downregulated in the low meat pH24h group compared to the high meat pH24h group. In conclusion, meat pH24h was unrelated to the cortisol level and muscle fiber characteristics. However, the TNC gene might play a role in meat pH24h in pigs.

Back-matter

K. G. Wiryawan — Wed, 06 Mar 2024 09:00:18 +0700

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5398/tasj.2024.47.1.bm.vi